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READING THE TEXT IN RED ON THIS PAGE WILL MAKE IT EASIER FOR YOU TO USE EACH PAGE in my educational website.
THE 2 EUREKA EFFECT PAGES FOR UNDERSTANDING SOIL AND HOW PLANTS INTERACT WITH IT OUT OF 17,000:-
Explanation of Structure of this Website with User Guidelines Page for those photo galleries with Photos (of either ones I have taken myself or others which have been loaned only for use on this website from external sources) |
HOME PAGES Welcome - Ivydene Gardens informs you how to design, construct and maintain your private garden using organic methods and companion planting. Sub Menu to each Page of this Topic of the HOME PAGES, with normally a * after Page you are viewing.
Damage to Tree Trunks 1, 2, 3, 4 caused by people, Camera Photo Galleries:- Will visitors to Madeira worry about having branches or trees in public places fall on them? No; according to Engineer Francisco Pedro Freitas Andrade of Est. Marmeleiros, No 1, Jardins & Espaces Verdes who is Chef de Diviso Câmara Municipal do Funchal; Departamento de Ciência e de Recursos Naturais; Divisão de Jardins e Espaços Verdes Urbanos in charge of the trees within the pavements within the area controlled by Funchal Municipality - See Monitoring of Trees in pavements in Funchal, Madeira from September 2019 to February 2010 1, 2 pages by his department. PROBLEMS WITH TREES IN PAVEMENTS IN ST. PETER PORT, GUERNSEY IN SEPTEMBER 2019 |
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Incorrect trimming can lead to watersprouts. The following comes Botanica's Pocket Trees & Shrubs - over 1000 pages and over 2000 plants listed. Published by Random House Australia Pty Ltd in 2004. This version was printed in China in 2006 with ISBN 3-8331-2161-0:- "PRUNING AND TRIMMING GENERAL METHOD FOR PRUNING SHRUBS AND TREES:-
Apply pruning paint or paste to cut surfaces to seal the cuts. |
This is the Botanica's Pocket Trees & Shrubs top 20 trees and shrubs for coastal gardens:
presumably there are more out the 2000 which are also suitable for coastal gardens. |
"Watersprouts are shoots that arise from the trunk of a tree or from branches that are several years old, from latent buds. The latent buds might be visible on the bark of the tree, or submerged under the bark as epicormic buds. They are sometimes called suckers, although that term is more correctly applied to shoots that arise from below ground, from the roots, and a distance from the trunk. Vigorous upright watersprouts often develop in response to damage or pruning. The structure of watersprouts regrowth is not as strong as natural tree growth, and the shoots are more subject to diseases and pests. A system of principles of pruning considers this type of shoot undesirable on orchard trees because very little fruit is produced on them." from Wikipedia. |
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Photo 1 - tree 78 from pestana mirimar IMG_6427.JPG The thin mostly vertical light brown shoots on this tree are watersprouts. The thicker light brown shoot is a more mature watersprout. Instead of watersprouts, I am calling the shoots produced from a stump of a branch which starts life in the bark and water-bearing section of a very small area in the circumference of that cut; a watershoot. The watershoot will have a connection to that water-bearing part and the bark, but will not join to the heartwood of that stump. More details about this will be shown in the third row below. |
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Photo 2 - tree 78 from pestana mirimar IMG_6431.JPG There is a group of 3 in a triangle on the right hand trunk - these watersprouts arise from epicormic buds within the trunk. The lower watersprout also arises from an epicormic bud, since none of these watersprouts start from the cut surface of the respective branch stumps. Both stumps are drying out and cracking apart. The stump in the middle of the right hand trunk has rotted quite considerably. It looks like there is a hole in the lower part of the trunk on the left - this could have come from a branch stump which has been rotting for some time. Photo 3 - tree 124 from mirimar to funchal pollarded tree IMG_0061.JPG This tree has had a branch removed from the right hand branch and that has rotted. It looks as if this tree was pollarded above its multiple tree fork of 2 Forked Leaders. |
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Photo 4 - tree 124 from mirimar to funchal pollarded tree IMG_0061.JPG The hole in the trunk where a branch used to be on the right hand side is continuing to rot - when is the weight of the branch extending from the right hand side of that hole going to tear that branch from the tree trunk causing a lot of trouble to the lower part of this tree trunk? Is this complex set of 2 Forked Leaders starting to split apart? Note
The left hand trunk is joined to the next trunk which has has either broken off or been cut off and that leads on 3 more trunks joined together. This collection of 3 trunks started as as a Forked Leader and then the right hand one then created another Forked Leader of 3 trunks. |
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"Tree 32 from end of 2 road junction with watershoot and proper branch IMG 6259.JPG is on Page 8 . You can see that the proper branch has attachment to the main branch all the way round (see Branch Collar for detailed explaination in 'Lifting', 'Crown Thinning' and Crown Reduction in Photo Damage to Trees in Madeira 4 Gallery and in Tree 165 from lido to forum IMG 0192.JPG. The black central portion could be part of the branch collar of Tree 15 forum end of 2 road junction IMG 6184.JPG in Gallery 1 Page 4. You can see half the branch collar from a branch in tree 26 from end of 2 road junction IMG 6230 in Gallery 1 Page 7 and be able to note how much more of the branch collar is attached to its mother branch than a watershoot), whereas the watershoot is only attached to the proper branch in less than half its circumference. This means that the watershoot is inherently very weak in the side where it is not attached. If a pulling force is applied to the opposite side which is not attached, then the watershoot will break away. Madeira appears to pollard it's trees and then rely on the watershoots which grow from the stumps - a dangerous procedure." from Pages 14-25 of Damage to Trees in Pavements of Funchal. |
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The left hand new branch comes from a Dormant Branch Growth Bud in the trunk. Where it joins the bark, you can see a lighter green area and this is its Branch Collar. This branch collar has grown from the branch collar in the middle of the trunk as the tree has grown. It is very much tougher than the remainder of the trunk. When the trunk has rotted, this Branch Collar system is the last to be rotted. New branches from the trunk or branch are usually grown from a Dormant Branch Growth Bud which develops with that new branch and new section of trunk. That explains why a a valid branch is so much stronger than either watersprouts or watershoots. The watershoot growing on the cut branch stump edge is only connected to the bark, cambium and water-bearing sections of a small section of the stump. The watershoot grows faster because the water going to the original cut branch stump now only to supply this watershoot. |
Tree 32 from end of 2 road junction with watersprout and proper branch IMG 6259.JPG |
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Watershoots start from this thin section where this red sap is exuding from which is the cambium layer. They use that layer, bark and the water supply section only to attach themselves to. |
Tree 27 from end of 2 road junction with bleeding cut stumps IMG 6235.JPG |
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The black central portion could be part of the branch collar of Tree 15 forum end of 2 road junction IMG 6184.JPG in Gallery 1 Page 4. Solutions to stop creating holes in trees. I have a tree in the front garden that has been pollarded to 72 inches (180 cms), because it was interfering with the shallow foundations of my house many years ago. I trained a climbing rose and ivy on the stump and then ignored it for quite a few years. This stump has now rotted all the way down to the ground, but there are a central portions of far stronger wood that not yet been rotted within that trunk. The rotten trunk was fully supported by the ivy. I suspect that this is the internal part of a Branch Collar that started from the roots to form the trunk as its first branch. As the trunk grows, then the Branch Collar system grows with it and the tree sends out Collar Branches from this Branch Collar to the bark of where it considers new branches may be required in the future. It can also decide that some of those can be converted into new branches as the trunk grows, rather than simply grow with the trunk as Dormant Branch Growth Buds. Then, the Branch Collar branches off into this new branch and performs the same function in creating new branches as the trunk does, but under the overall control of the trunk/root Branch Collar as to exactly what should happen everywhere. |
The black central portion could be part of the branch collar of Tree 15 forum end of 2 road junction IMG 6184.JPG in Gallery 1 Page 4. |
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You can see half the branch collar from a branch in tree 26 from end of 2 road junction IMG 6230 in Gallery 1 Page 7 and be able to note how much more of the branch collar is attached to its mother branch than a watershoot), whereas the watershoot is only attached to the proper branch in less than half its circumference. Note that the branch collar is thicker than the branch that is created from it and you can see a black section from below the end of the branch collar on the top round to much further away from the branch that it comes from at the bottom. This probably means that you need to make a diagonal cut from about 2-3 inches (5-7.5 cms) of the branch that you cutting this branch from down to about 4-6 inchres away at the bottom - this extra at the bottom provides the support for the new branch by the branch/trunk that it is growing from to make it as strong as it can. This means that the watershoot is inherently very weak in the side where it is not attached. If a pulling force is applied to the opposite side which is not attached, then the watershoot will break away. Madeira appears to pollard it's trees and then rely on the watershoot which grow from the stumps - a dangerous procedure. |
The black central portion could be part of the branch collar of Tree 15 forum end of 2 road junction IMG 6184.JPG in Gallery 1 Page 4. |
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If we look at the 3 large diameter branches coming from the trunk on the left we can see that trunk 1 and trunk 3 are joined together from a Dormant Branch Growth Bud. Whether trunk 2 is part of it we do not know. This has created a Forked Leader and the branch collar of the junction to the trunk is non-existent on 1 side. There seems to a split already occurring between the branch collar of the trunk and this Forked Leader. If we look at the same diameter new branch on the right hand side of this trunk, we see that the branch collar has extended itself from the trunk and that it creates a strong bond with the new branch. Some green and light brown watersprouts have sprung up round and to the right of it. You will also note that the bark has repeatedly split to reveal lighter brown new bark underneath. That is this year's new growth of the trunk to form it's annual ring eventually and is due to the fact that this tree is irrigated on a regular basis. You do not notice this effect on the old trees in the pavements between the Cathedral and The Forum because they are not irrigated and even if they were then less than 1% of their roots could possibly take that water up. Even this is unlikely since the main roots going out from the trunk are usually the lateral roots which are used to stabilise the tree. Once these have extended and done their job, feeder roots are then sent out to obtain the water, nutrients and do the gaseous exchange. Once the earth in which those feeder roots usually growing beyond the drip line have no further water, nutrients and they are gassing themselves from its exuding carbon dioxide and nitrogen, then those feeder roots die off and new ones are created where conditions are favourable.
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Tree 80 from pestana mirimar in mirimar front garden IMG 6442.JPG in Gallery 2 Page 21. |
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We in the UK keep on building roads, buildings etc on the land. These get rained on and usually that rain gets put into the public storm drain and is lost to the rivers/ocean. Although there are byelaws that state except for the rain water falling on roofs, then all other rain must be kept on your own property then this is mostly ignored as the difficulty of parking your car on the road is both expensive and difficult if somebody else nicks your space. So, you convert the front garden into a car park. All this reduces the area of land that used to absorb the rain ( this used to soak though your ground into aquifers, which would provide you with drinking water in Medway) and slowly release it into the system. It also means that the people who live in houses on the top of the hill do not mind if their rainwater causes flooding to the houses at the bottom of the hill or further down the river. The following sections from an article in the Independent detail what remedial measures need to be taken, which include trees to soak up this excess:- "10 measures that must be taken to prevent more flooding in the future 5. Increase spending on flood defences 6. Protect wetlands and introduce plant trees strategically 7. Restore rivers to their natural courses 8. Introduce water storage areas 9. Improve soil conditions Since the land is being used up, then one could install my solution for mosaic pavements with Beany Block drainage solution as the concrete kerb of the road alongside. The drained water from the road and the front garden drives could be channeled into a 45 degree branch by Marley. The straight through section continues to the next Beany Block section. The 45 degree branch points at 45 degrees across the pavement and goes into a P trap gully with the outlet from that entering a French Drain to cross the pavement from the roadside to the the other side. This French Drain continues back across the pavement in a curve to another 45 degree branch to rejoin the water draining down the Beany Block drainage. If this French Drain gets blocked, then rodding can occur from the inspection chamber after the P trap gully to the 45 degree branch further down the hill. This system could be used for each tree that is in the pavement. This would considerabley reduce the volume of water going down storm drains, irrigate the trees and provide us with oxygen. Perhaps a ratio of 5 evergreen to 3 deciduous trees would provide year round interest from the foliage and at least the evergreen trees could take up the water in the autumn and winter as well. This system could considerably reduce the rain flooding towns and villages by being absorbed in situ rather than traveling down to cause problems elsewhere. |
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This website is being created by Chris Garnons-Williams of Ivydene Horticultural Services from it's start in 2005. I am requesting free colour photographs of any plants grown in or sold in the United Kingdom to add to the plants in the Plant Photographic Galleries and Butterfly photographs for the Butterfly on Plant Photographic Galleries. |
Site design and content copyright ©April 2007. Page structure amended October 2012. Page structure changed February 2019 for pages concerning Trees in pavements alongside roads in Madeira. Chris Garnons-Williams. |
It should be remembered that nothing is sold from this educational site, it simply tries to give you the best advice on what to use and where to get it (About Chris Garnons-Williams page details that no payment or commision to or from any donor of photos or adverts I place on the site in the Useful Data or other sections is made to Chris Garnons-Williams or Ivydene Horticultural Services). This website is a hobby and not for direct commercial gain for Ivydene Horticultural Services. There is no Google Adscenes or Search Facility in this website. The information on this site is usually Verdana 14pt text and all is in tabular form. This can be downloaded and sorted using WORD or other word-processing software into the order that you personally require, especially for soil subsidence, the Companion Planting Tables and the pages in the Plants section. This would be suitable for use in education as well. I put jokes in at various places to give you a smile. |
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More Details |
Cultural Needs of Plants "Understanding Fern Needs |
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It is worth remembering that especially with roses that the colour of the petals of the flower may change - The following photos are of Rosa 'Lincolnshire Poacher' which I took on the same day in R.V. Roger's Nursery Field:- |
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Closed Bud |
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Opening Bud |
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Juvenile Flower |
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Older Juvenile Flower |
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Middle-aged Flower - Flower Colour in Season in its |
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Mature Flower |
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Juvenile Flower and Dying Flower |
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Form of Rose Bush |
There are 720 roses in the Rose Galleries; many of which have the above series of pictures in their respective Rose Description Page. So one might avoid the disappointment that the 2 elephants had when their trunks were entwined instead of them each carrying their trunk using their own trunk, and your disappointment of buying a rose to discover that the colour you bought it for is only the case when it has its juvenile flowers; if you look at all the photos of the roses in the respective Rose Description Page!!!! |
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There are 180 families in the Wildflowers of the UK and they have been split up into 22 Galleries to allow space for up to 100 plants per gallery. Each plant named in each of the Wildflower Family Pages may have a link to:- its Plant Description Page in its Common Name in one of those Wildflower Plant Galleries and it does have links:- to external sites to purchase the plant or seed in its Botanical Name, to see photos in its Flowering Months and to read habitat details in its Habitat Column. |
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Links to external websites like the link to "the Man walking in front of car to warn pedestrians of a horseless vehicle approaching" would be correct when I inserted it after March 2007, but it is possible that those horseless vehicles may now exceed the walking pace of that man and thus that link will currently be br My advice is Google the name on the link and see if you can find the new link. If you sent me an email after clicking Ivydene Horticultural Services text under the Worm Logo on any page, then; as the first after March 2010 you would be the third emailer since 2007, I could then change that link in that 1 of the 15,743 pages. Currently (August 2016). Other websites provide you with cookies - I am sorry but I am too poor to afford them. If I save the pennies from my pension for the next visitor, I am almost certain in March 2023, that I could afford to make that 4th visitor to this website a Never Fail Cake. I would then be able to save for more years for the postage. |
The following is from "Some time around 600 million years ago, green algae began to move out of shallow fresh waters and onto the land. They were the ancestors of all land plants... Today, plants make up to 80% of the mass of all life on Earth and are the base of the food chains that support nearly all terrestrial organisms.... But the algal ancestors of land plants had no roots, no way to store or transport water, and no experience in extracting nutrients from solid ground. How did they manage the fraught passage onto dry land? ... It was only by striking up new relationships with fungi that algae were able to make it onto land. These early alliances evolved into what we now call mycorrhizal relationships. Today, more than 90% of all plant species depend on mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal associations are the rule not the exception: a more fundamental part of planthood than fruit, flowers, leaves, wood or even roots.... For the relationship to thrive, both plant and fungus must make a good metabolic match. In photosynthesis, plants harvest carbon from the atmosphere and forge the energy-rich carbon compounds - sugars and lipids - on which much of the rest of life depends. By growing within plant roots, mycorrhizal fungi acquire privileged access to these sources of energy: they get fed. However, photosynthesis is not enough to support life. Plants and fungi need more than a source of energy. Water and minerals must be scavenged from the ground - full of textures and micropores, electrically charged cavities and labyrinthine rot-scapes. Fungi are deft rangers in this wilderness and can forage in a way that plants can not. By hosting fungi within their roots, plants gain hugely improved access to these sources of nutrients. They, too, get fed. By partnering, plants gain a prosthetic fungus, and fungi gain a prosthetic plant. Both use the other to extend their reach.... By the time the first roots evolved, the mycorrhizal association was already some 50 million years old. Mycorrhizal fungi are the roots of all subsequent life on land. Today, hundreds of millions of years later, plants have evolved, faster-growing, opportunistic roots that behave more like fungi. But even these roots cannot out-manoeuvre fungi when it comes to exploring the soil. Mycorrhizal hyphae are 50 times finer than the finest roots and can exceeed the length of a plant's roots by as much as a 100 times. Their mycelium makes up between a third and a half of the living mass of soils. The numbers are astronomical. Globally, the total length of mycorrhizal hyphae in the top 10 centimetres (4 inches) of soil is around half the width of our galaxy (4.5 x 10 to the power 17 kilometres versus 9.5 x 10 to the power 17 kilometres). If these hyphae were ironed into a flat sheet, their combined surface area would cover every inch of dry land on Earth 2.5 times over.... In their relationship, plants and mycorrhizal fungi enact a polarity: plant shoots engage with the light and air, while the fungi and plant roots engage with the solid ground. Plants pack up light and carbon dioxide into sugars and lipids. Mycorrhizal fungi unpack nutrients bound up in rock and decomposing material. These are fungi with a dual niche: part of their life happens within the plant, part in the soil. They are stationed at the entry point of carbon into terrestrial life cycles and stitch the atmosphere into relation with the ground. To this day, mycorrhizal fungi help plants cope with drought, heat and many other stresses life on land has presented from the very beginning, as do the symbiotic fungi that crowd into plant leaves and stems. What we call 'plants' are in fact fungi that have evolved to farm algae, and algae that have evolved to farm fungi.... Mycorrhizal fungi can provide up to 80% of a plant's nitrogen, and as much as 100% of its phosphorus. Fungi supply other crucial nutrients to plants, such as zinc and copper. They also supply plants with water, and help them to survive drought as they have done since the earliest days of life on land. In return, plants allocate up to 30% of the carbon they harvest to their mycorrhizal partners.... And yet mycorrhizal fungi do more than feed plants. Some describe them as keystone organisms; others prefer the term 'ecosystem engineers'. Mycorrhizal mycelium is a sticky living seam that holds soil together; remove the fungi, and the ground washes away. Mycorrhizal fungi increase the volume of water that the soil can absorb, reducing the quantity of nutrients leached out of the soil by rainfall by as much as 50%. Of the carbon that is found in soils - which, remarkably, amounts to twice the amount of carbon found in plants and the atmosphere combined - a substantial proportion is bound up in tough organic compounds produced by mycorrhizal fungi. The carbon that floods into the soil through mycorrhizal channels supports intricate food webs. Besides the hundreds or thousands of metres of fungal mycelium in a teaspoon of healthy soil, there are more bacteria, protists, insects and arthropods than the number of humans who have ever lived on Earth. Mycorrhizal fungi can increase the quality of a harvest. They can also increase the ability of crops to compete with weeds and enhance their resistance to diseases by priming plant's immune systems. They can make crops less susceptible to drought and heat, and more resistant to salinity and heavy metals. They even boost the ability of plants to fight off attacks from insect pests by stimulating the production of defensive chemicals... But over the course of the twentieth century, our neglect has led us into trouble. In viewing soils as more or less lifeless places, industrial agricultural practices have ravaged the undergound communities that sustain the life we eat.... A large study published in 2018 suggested that the 'alarming deterioration' of the health of trees across Europe was caused by a disruption of their mycorrhizal relationships, brought about by nitrogen pollution." from Before Roots chapter by Merlin Sheldrake.
"We do know, that this fragile, generative world has been damaged by intensive farming, pollution, deforestation and global heating. A third of the planet's land has been severely degraded and 24 billion tons of fertile soil are destroyed every year through intensive farming, according to the Global Land Outlook. Topsoil is where 95% of the planet's food is grown and is very delicate. It takes more than 100 years to build 5mm of soil, and it can be destroyed shockingly easily. This destruction and degradation of the soil is created by intensive farming practices such as heavy mechanised soil tilling, which loosens and rips away any plant cover, leaving the soil bare. It is also caused by the overgrazing of animals, as well as forest fires and heavy construction work. These factors disturb the soil and leave it exposed to erosion from wind and water, damaging the complicated systems underneath its top layer... We are losing good soil at an estimated 100 times faster rate than we can remake and heal it. The world's soils are thought to store approximately 15 thousand million tonnes of carbon - 3 times as much as all of our planet's terrestrial vegetation combined. Soils hold twice as much carbon as the atmosphere, and when soil disintegrates, the carbon is released. In the last 40 years the soil in the UK's croplands lost 10% of the carbon it could store. In a time of climate crisis, soil's quiet potency, its ability to store carbon safely, is utterly essential to our future survival.... We know that soils are being destroyed, and that with that comes a higher risk of floods, and a more unpredictable and unreliable food and water system. An Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecostem Services report in 2018 told us clearly that land degradationis already putting the welfare of two-fifths of humanity at risk, and that urgent action is needed to avoid further danger. There are many things we can do to protect soils, and the organisms, plants and connections that thrive within them. Actions that can support and heal soil structure include
Such regimes allow soil structure to remain intact, and protect the soil by allowing crop residues to stay on the surface. " from Strange Soil chapter by Rebecca Tamas. |
Due to intensive farming techniques and chemical fertilisers this has occurred:- The BBC has produced an article as to why modern food as lost its nutrients. |
The following about trees in pavements show why when the roots are denied access to air, water and nutrients even the fungi cannot work to support the trees. Pavements of Funchal, Madeira |
The following addition of this mulch improved the clay soil, so that A 150mm deep mulch of mixed peat, sharp washed sand and horticultural grit was applied on top of a heavy clay soil to improve its structure, and stop the plants therein from drowning, at £10 a square metre. The mix was:
The following was then sent to me:-
and the following was sent to me in October 2004:- An unsuccessful planting scheme had left bare areas of garden as plants failed to survive winter in the waterlogged clay soil. The loss of numerous plants and the cost of replacing them had left us disheartened. It was evident that remedial action was need in the form of a mixture of gravel, sand and peat to create an organic loam. Approximately six inches was added in April and left to settle and do its job. By July there was a noticeable difference in the quality of the soil and the plants. Shrubs with sparse, mottled leaves were looking glossy and robust, overall growth had increased (including the weeds!) and the soil was holding its moisture well. But the biggest difference came in the confidence it gave us to transform the garden. The borders used to be a no-go area between May and September as the clay baked and cracked, but the new soil was easy to handle and weeds could be successfully removed. We realised that there are no quick fixes - the key to a healthy garden is rich, nutritous soil. Once our plants began to thrive we were optimistic that, with good advice, we could create a garden to be proud of. |
