Ivydene Gardens Soil:
Soil Formation - What is Soil Structure? THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PAGE IN THIS ENTIRE WEBSITE.
 

Soil Structure

This describes the way in which sand, silt and clay particles are bonded together in larger units called ‘aggregates’.

These are formed when the soil is subjected to shrinking and swelling, plant-root penetration or freezing. All these processes tend to break the soil into discrete units. Aggregates are said to be stable when they are able to resist pressures caused by processes such as compaction and sudden wetting. Rapid wetting is a process in breaking up unstable aggregates, because when dry aggregates are suddenly exposed to water, pores near the surface of the aggregate become filled with water, trapping air inside the aggregate; the resulting pressure can sometimes be enough to break the aggregate apart, and this is called ‘slaking’. Aggregates are divided into microaggregates (less than 250 millionths of a metre) and macroaggregates (greater than 250 millionths of a metre).

Before microaggregates can form, microscopic clay minerals need to be grouped together in small stacks called ‘domains’. When clays are bonded together in this way, they are termed ‘flocculated’.

The most important factor influencing flocculation is the presence of ions with more than 1 charge. When clay minerals are covered with singly charged ions they disperse and become deflocculated (i.e. they will absorb a great deal of water without it draining).

However, not all ions carry only 1 charge.

For example, calcium (Ca2+) in lime or chalk, Magnesium (Mg2+) and aluminium (Al3+) are 3 very common ions in soils. Ions with multiple charges allow clay minerals to bond together to form domains. Once clay minerals are stacked together to form domains, they can then bond with organic matter to form microaggregates.
Lime (Calcium), Magnesia (Magnesium) and Alumina (Aluminium) are 3 of the 11 chemicals with ions in the soil and are further detailed below followed by their affect on their lack or not; in Sandy, Calcareous and Clay soils.

The interaction between clay domains, organic matter, silt and sand particles diagram.

Once microaggregates have formed, they can then coalesce to form macroaggregates. In soils that have low concentrations of clay, macroaggregate stability is highly dependent on organic matter.

The type of organic matter associated with macroaggregates is slightly different from the persistent organic material found in microaggregates. Type one are those stabilising agents that are referred to as ‘temporary’. These consist of microbial and plant by-products, the most important of which are the ‘polysaccharide gums’ that are simply long chains of sugar molecules. Secondly, there are ‘transient’ stabilising agents, which include the fine plant roots and fungal hyphae.

Both stabilising compounds are vulnerable to microbial attack so need to be replenished continuously through inputs of fresh soil organic matter.

If microaggregates do not have a continuing supply of organic matter, then they will break up so that soil particles simply return to being sand, silt or clay.

Saxigraga oppositifolia

Bonding Family and Friends

"...even those for whom cooking is an oppressive chore or a source of self-doubting anxiety, achnowledge that a meal shared by friends and family is one of the bonding rituals without which the family, society even, can fall apart." by Antonia Till from "Loaves & Wishes".

The following information comes from pages 30-34 of the 844 in
"Beeton's New Book of Garden Management" by Samuel Orchart Beeton;
published in 1870 by Ward, Lock & Co., Limited. ASIN: B000WG5WKK.

Soils may be said to consist of a mechanical mixture of 4 substances -

• 1. Silica, silicious sand, or gravel,
• 2. Clay,
• 3. Lime and
• 4. Humus,

with many of the following 11 chemical substances , in varying proportions:-

Chemical

is contained in or made from

Benefit

Potash - is the common term for nutrient forms of the element potassium (K)

This substance is obtained by burning wood, small branches, or leaves, the ash being washed in water, and evaporated in an iron pot and calcined. Add a small quantity of water, decant the liquid, and evaporate to dryness, and pearl-ash is obtained, which is an impure form of potash in combination with carbonic acid, or crude carbonate of potash. When this is boiled with newly-slaked quicklime, it is deprived of carbonic acid, which enters into combination with the lime, and the carbonate of potash is thus converted into pure or caustic potash, which can be separated into a silvery-white soft, metallic substance, potassium, and a gaseous element, oxygen.

The combination in which potash is found in soils is chiefly as silicates of potash. Some kinds of felspar, mica, and granite contain large proportions, as much as 15-20%. Iit also enters into the composition of trap-rock, basalt, and whinstone, though in smaller proportions.

Many plants require a large amount of potash for their food, the only source from which it can be obtained being the soil. This accounts for the fact that wood ashes, which contain carbonate of potash, are so conducive to the healthy growth of clover, beans, potatoes, and other plants whose ashes yield potash in return.

As the rock crumbles, silicates of potash are set free, and rendered available for the plants. Clay, which is chiefly derived from felspar, invariably contains it; and it is partly for this reason that light land, in which potash is usually deficient, is benefitted by claying.

Soda - caustic soda is sodium hydroxide

This is obtained by burning seaweed; and plants growing on the sea-shore are rendered caustic by the same process.

Its most common form, however, is sea-salt, or chloride of sodium. Seakale, asparagus, and similiar plants are benefitted by its use.

Lime - is a calcium-containing (Ca2+) inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides predominate.

Chalk, marble, and limestone are carbonates of lime. Under heat, the carbonic acid is driven out, and pure or caustic lime (Calcium oxide, CaO) remains.

Quicklime sprinkled with water absorbs it; heat is evolved, and it falls to powder, or is slaked. Slaked lime is a white powder, dry to appearance, but contains, in reality, water in an invisible form, chemically combined with lime. If exposed to the air, it attracts carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and becomes partially changed into carbonate of lime.

In its effects on animal and vegetable matters this pure or caustic lime resembles potash and soda, is slower in action, and is used most beneficially on peat land; its excess of organic matter is thus gradually destroyed, and converted into nutritious food for plants.

Salts of lime are found in all ashes of plants; soils, therefore, capable of sustaining vegetable life, must contain lime in some form or other.

Magnesia - a natural mineral of magnesium oxide (Magnesium Mg2+)

The ingredient is never wanting in fertile soils. Magnesian limestone, which is a natural compound of the carbonates of lime and magnesia, contains 30-40%; and in this form it exists in all dolomite and many other solid rocks. Soils containing much carbonate of magnesia absorb moisture with great avidity, and are generally cold soils. Silicate of magnesia enters largely into the composition of serpentine rocks. Soapstone and limestone frequently contain it. Compounds of sulphuric acid and muriatic acid with magnesia are also found in many mineral waters.

Suphate of magnesia, which is the name of the familiar Epsom salts, is formed from the decomposition of dolomitic rocks.

Alumina - Aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
Aluminium is Al3+, so each aluminium ion carries 3 charges.

This is the compound of the metal aluminium with oxygen, or, in other words, oxide of aluminium. It occurs very abundantly in the mineral kingdom, both free and in combination with acids. In its crystallized state it forms the hard mineral known as corundum, and, in combination with oxide of chromium, the saphire and the ruby; and emery is a dark-coloured granular variety of it. In an uncrystallized state it is a white, tasteless, powdery substance, obtained by adding a solution of carbonate of soda to alum.

It constitutes a large proportion of shale and slate rocks, and is a principle ingredient, in combination with silica, in pipe, porcelain, and agricultural clays, to which it gives tenacity and stiffness. It is rarely found in the ashes of plants, and therefore not considered as directly contributing to their nourishment, although useful as a mechanical agent in absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, and in detaining the volatile as well as the alkaline salts of manures, which would otherwise be dissolved by the first heavy shower, and carried into the subsoil beyond the reach of the roots of the plant.

Iron - is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from Latin: ferrum). Iron compounds are called ferrous.

This metal, both in the black or protoxide, and the red or peroxide state, abounds in all soils, the red being most abundant, and easily observable from the red colour it communicates. Even soils in which the protoxide obtains, which are a bluish-grey colour when brought to the surface, are changed to the red colour by the atmosphere, oxygen uniting with and acting on it. Oxide of iron is found in the ashes of all plants and in the blood of animals.

The presence of iron is easily detected in soils by the ochry deposits in the beds of springs and ditches, where the oxide dissolved in carbonic acid produces the metallic-coloured deposit in question.

Sulphate of iron also occurs in some soils, produced from iron pyrites: such soils are unproductive; for it is a compound of sulphuric acid with protoxide of iron, better known under the name of green vitriol. Lime added to such soils combines with the sulphuric acid, forming gypsum; and sweetens them and removes the injurious properties.

Manganese - Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn. It is not found as a free element in nature; it is often found in combination with iron, and in many minerals.

Manganese is also important in photosynthetic oxygen evolution in chloroplasts in plants. The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) is a part of photosystem II contained in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; it is responsible for the terminal photooxidation of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis, and has a metalloenzyme core containing four atoms of manganese. For this reason, most broad-spectrum plant fertilizers contain manganese.

This metal, in combination with oxygen, associated with oxide of iron, occurs naturally in many soils.

In the ashes of plants traces of it are also found; but iron usually predominates. The ash of the horse chestnut and oak bark is rich in manganese, with no trace of iron.

Silica or Silex - Silicon dioxide, also known as silica (from the Latin silex), is a chemical compound that is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula SiO2.

This mineral occurs abundantly in nature, either in a free state or in the form of sand, sandstones, flint, chalcedony, rock-crystal, or quartz, and in combination with lime, magnesia, iron, potash, soda, and other minerals. Silica is

• insoluble in hot or cold water, and resists the action of some strong acids; but hydrofluoric acid dissolves it,
• when mixed with soda or potash, and exposed to the heat of a glass furnace.

Silica is dissolved, or rather enters into combination with the alkali, and forms glass; or when the alkali is in excess, it dissolves into water. On the addition of muriatic acid, or sulphuric acid, to a solution of this silicate of potash, the silcate separates into a gelatinous mass, in which form it is soluble in water, and thus becomes the food of plants.

Sulphur - sulphur (sulfur) is a chemical element with symbol S.

Sulphur is an essential element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides.

Sulfur is increasingly used as a component of fertilizers. The most important form of sulfur for fertilizer is the mineral calcium sulfate. Elemental sulfur is hydrophobic (that is, it is not soluble in water) and, therefore, cannot be directly utilized by plants. Over time, soil bacteria can convert it to soluble derivatives, which can then be utilized by plants. Sulfur improves the use efficiency of other essential plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Biologically produced sulfur particles are naturally hydrophilic due to a biopolymer coating. This sulfur is, therefore, easier to disperse over the land (via spraying as a diluted slurry), and results in a faster release.

Plant requirements for sulfur are equal to or exceed those for phosphorus. It is one of the major nutrients essential for plant growth, root nodule formation of legumes and plants protection mechanisms. Sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in Europe.

This compound, in the form of sulphuric acid, enters into the composition of all cultivated soils, chiefly in combination with limestone, magnesia, potash, and other bases.

With hydrogen it forms sulhuretted hydrogen, a remarably disagreeable-smelling gas, the product of the decompostion of organic matter contained in the soil and impregnating many medicinal waters, as at Harrogate in North England.

Phosphorus - Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P .

Phosphorus is essential for life. Phosphates (compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO4−3) are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also the phospholipids, which form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate minerals are fossils. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population.

This ingredient is a soft, wax-like, highly inflammable substance, which combines with atmospheric oxygen, giving rise to phosphoric acid, which enters into the composition of all our cultivated plants, and is essentially necessary to a healthy condition of vegetable life.

Phosphorus exists in trap-rock, granite, basalt and other igneous rocks, and in lime, ironstone and most minerals.

Chlorine - Chlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl. In the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life. Chloride is one of the most common anions in nature.

This is a highly-noxious, suffocating, yellowish, gaseous element, particularly disagreeable in smell.

In soils it is found in combination with such bases as chloride of sodium, or common salt. It is more necessary as a plant-food to root crops rather than to cereals.

Some of the affects of the above 11 chemicals on the following soils:-

Sandy Soils - If you try to adjust the soil texture by adding silt or clay to a sandy soil, you’ll see some improvement, but most of it will just flush through the soil. There’s not enough organic matter to keep these fine-textured soil components from washing out. Increasing soil organic matter is the key to gardening in sandy soil. You have to make the soil more “sticky”, so water and nutrients don’t just flush through every time it rains.

My suggestion:-
If you fill 30% of cement mixer with water, add 20% of clay and mix till a slurry. Add organic matter and your sandy soil and mix, keeping it as a slurry. Pour into wheelbarrow and move to where it is required and tip the wheelbarrow, spread the result with a rake, before repeating the process for the rest of the ground to be altered. The worms and rain will transport this material down and that will create a loam which is best for your plants as shown in the diagram at the top of this page.

Sandy soils are loose, friable, open and dry, and for that reason easily cultivated. They rest chiefly on the old red sandstone, and granite and coal formations.

Where alumina and calcareous matter are absent, however, they are nearly barren, they absorb manures without benefit to the land.

Where alumina and lime exist, they are more compact and adhesive, and grow good crops of beans, peas, spring wheat, and turnips.

They are capable of improvement by admixture with clay, marl, chalk, and other adhesive soils, which communicate their constituent properties to them

Calcareous Soils - Calcareous soils have often more than 15% CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) in the soil. Phosphorous is often lacking in calcareous soils. Calcareous soils usually suffer from a lack of micronutrients, especially zinc and iron. Heavy applications of animal manure are helpful in preventing deficiency of iron and zinc.

Calcareous is an adjective meaning "mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate", in other words, containing lime or being chalky. Calcareous soils are relatively alkaline, in other words they have a high pH.

The availability of N, P, K, Mg, Mn, Zn, and Fe to citrus decreases when soil CaCO3 concentration increases to more than about 3% by weight. These soils generally have a pH value in the range of 7.6 to 8.3. Phosphorus fertilizer applied to calcareous soils becomes fixed in sparingly soluble compounds over time. To maintain continuous P availability, P fertilizer should be applied on a regular, but not necessarily frequent, basis.

Calcareous soils resting on the upper chalk formation are usually deep, dry, loose, friable, and fertile in their nature, but others, resting on the shaly oolite, are stony, poor, thin soils.

Where pure clay is present in such soils, they are called loams or calcareous clays; where silica is in excess, they are termed calcareous sandy soils.

Leguminous plants, as peas, beans, vetches, saintfoin, and clover, do well on such soils, lime being essential to their growth.

Clay Soils - Interesting 4 page article applying compost etc to improve clay soil.

To improve that soil as the quickest solution, I would add a 1 cm (0.5 inch) depth of sharp washed sand, a 1 cm depth of chalk (lime) and 10 cm (4 inch) depth of organic compost and leave it to work itself in from that application in early spring. 2 months later add 3 inches (7.5 cm) depth of cow manure to provide further nutrients.

Clay soils are characterised by stiffness, impenetrability, great power of absorbing and retaining moisture, and great specific gravity; they are, consequently, cold, stiff, heavy, and impervious, costly to cultivate, and often unproductive.

Perfect drainage,
burning the soil with wood faggots, branches of trees, grass sods, and vegetable refuse, and
mixing chalk and sand,
are the only remedies. Burning is the most efficient remedy; the burnt clay acting chemically as a manure, its contstituents being rendered more soluble. Provided a moderate heat has been applied to the process, the potash is rendered soluble, and liberated from the clay in which it occurs in an insoluble combination. Thus treated, clay soils become the most fertile for all heavy crops.

The following weeds indicate what the soil is that they naturally grow on
as detailed in Encyclopedia of Gardening by J.C. Loudon and published in 1827:-

Argillaceous or Clayey Soil

Common coltsfoot indicates blue clay

Tussilago farfara

The most certain and universal sign of a clayey soil, and the chief plant found on alum grounds of Britain, France, and Italy

Goose tansy (Goosegrass)

Potentilla anserina

Silvery-leaved tansy (Hoary cinquefoil)

Potentilla argentea

Creeping tansy (Creeping cinquefoil)

Potentilla reptans

Yellow meadowrue (Common meadow-rue)

Thalictrum flavuum

Sedge

Carex

many species

Rush

Juncus

various species

Tuberous bitter vetch (Bitter vetch, Heath Pea)

Orobus tuberosus (Lathyrus linifolius subsp. montanus)

Greater bird's-foot trefoil

Lotus major (Lotus uliginosus)

Small-horned trefoil (Common birdsfoot trefoil)

Lotus corniculatus

Common soapwort (Soapwort)

Saponaria officinalis

Calcareous Soil

Spiked speedwell

Veronica spicata

Little bedstraw

Galium pusillum

Common gromwell

Lithospermum officinal

Purple-blue gromwell (Purple gromwell)

Lithospermum purpureo-caeruleum

Clustered bell-flower

Campanula glomerata

Hybrid bell-flower (Venus's Looking-glass)

Specularia hybrida (Legousia hybrida)

Round-headed rampion

Phyteuma orbiculare (Phyteuma tenerum)

Lychnitis mullein (White Mullein)

Verbascum lychnitis

Wayfaring tree

Viburnum lantana

Common berberry (Barberry)

Berberis vulgaris

Common dwarf sun-rose (Common Rock-Rose)

Helianthemum vulgare (Helianthemum nummularium, Helianthemum chamaecistus)

Common pulsatilla anemone (Pasque Flower)

Anemone pulsatilla

White vine, virgin's bower or traveller's joy

Clematis vitalba

Cultivated sainfoin (Sainfoin)

Onobrychis sativa (Onobrychis viciifolia)

Sandy or Siliceous Soil

Three-leaved speedwell (Fingered Speedwell)

Veronica triphylla (Veronica triphyllos)

Spring speedwell

Veronica verna

Italian viper's bugloss (Pale Bugloss)

Echium plantagineum contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids and is poisonous.[10] When eaten in large quantities, it causes reduced livestock weight and death, in severe cases. Paterson's curse can kill horses[11] and irritate the udders of dairy cows and the skin of humans. After the 2003 Canberra bushfires a large bloom of the plant occurred on the burned land, and many horses became ill and died from grazing on it.[12] Because the alkaloids can also be found in the nectar of Paterson's curse, the honey made from it should be blended with other honeys to dilute the toxins.

Echium italicum

Smooth rupture wort

Herniaria glabra

Hairy rupture wort - Herniaria hirsuta is a species of flowering plant in the pink family known by the common name hairy rupturewort. It is native to Eurasia and North Africa, and it is known on other continents, including North America, as an introduced species.

Herniaria hirsuta

English catchfly (Small-flowered Catchfly)

and others in the Pink Family Pages 1 and 2

Silene anglica

and other species

Red sandwort indicates poor sand

Arenaria rubra

Cornfield spurrey (Corn spurrey)

Spergula arvensis

Hybrid poppy (Bristly Poppy)

Papaver hybridum

Scarlet poppy (Pale Poppy)

Papaver argemone

Ferruginous Soil - Ferrallitisation is the process in which rock is changed into a soil consisting of clay (kaolinite) and sesquioxides, in the form of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium. In humid tropical areas, with consistently high temperatures and rainfall for all or most of the year, chemical weathering rapidly breaks down the rock. This at first produces clays which later also break down to form silica. The silica is removed by leaching and the sesquioxides of iron and aluminium remain, giving the characteristic red colour of many tropical soils. Ferrallitisation is the reverse of podsolisation, where silica remains and the iron and aluminum are removed. In tropical rain forests with rain throughout the year, ferrallitic soils develop. In savanna areas, with altering dry and wet climates, ferruginous soils occur.

Garden sorrel indicates the presence of iron or peat (Sheep's Sorrel)

Rumex acetosa

Wood sorrel

Oxalis acetosella

Peaty Soil - This kind of soil is basically formed by the accumulation of dead and decayed organic matter, it naturally contains much more organic matter than most of the soils. It is generally found in marshy areas. Now the decomposition of the organic matter in Peaty soil is blocked by the acidity of the soil. This kind of soil is formed in wet climate. Though the soil is rich in organic matter, nutrients present are fewer in this soil type than any other type. Peaty soil is prone to water logging but if the soil is fertilized well and the drainage of the soil is looked after, it can be the ideal for growing plants.

Bilberry

Vaccinum myrtillus

Bleaberry (Northern bilberry)

Vaccinum uliginosum

Cranberry

Oxycoccus palustris

Heath - See Heath Family and Erica

Erica

Awl leaved spurrey (Heath Pearlwort)

Spergula subulata
(Sagina subulata)

Officinal septfoil (Tomentil)

Tormentilla officinalis (Potentilla erecta)

Saline or Salt Soil - Researchers at the University of California at Davis are breeding barley for culture with sea water irrigation (Epstein, 1976). Lines have been developed which survive and set seed (yields in the order of 1188 kg/ha) under irrigation with undiluted sea water. Similar breeding is underway with wheat. Table 18 states tolerance of fruit varieties and root stocks to Chloride levels.

Leaching is the only practical way of removing excess salts.  This is effective only to the extent that water moves down through the soil profile and beneath the root zone (drainage must be good). The amount of salts removed depends on the quantity and quality of water leached through the soil profile during a single irrigation period. Water should be low in salts (high quality) and must not run off the surface. It should be applied slowly so amounts do not exceed the ability of the soil to take in water (infiltration rate). The following amounts of water applied in a single, continuous irrigation will dissolve and decrease soil salts by these fractional amounts:

• 6 inches of water will leach about ½ the salt

• 12 inches of water will leach about 4/5 of the salt.

• 24 inches of water will leach about 9/10 of the salt.

Salty soils are not reclaimable when the soil’s clay content, compaction, or hardpan prevents leaching.

Glasswort - Glassworts Family

Salicornia

Marine wrackgrass (Common eel-grass)

Zosteria marina

Sea ruppia (Tassel Pondweed)

Ruppia maritima

Sea lungwort (Oyster Plant)

Pulmonaria maritima (Mertensia maritima)

Soldanella-leaved beanbind (Sea Bindweed)

Calystegia soldanella

Whorled knotgrass (Coral necklace)

Illecebrum verticillatum

Sea goosefoot (Common seablight)

Chenopodium maritimum (Suaeda maritima)

Shrubby goosefoot (Shrubby seablite)

Chenopodium fruticosum (Suaeda fruticosa)

Kali saltwort (Saltwort)

Salsola kali

Whorl-leaved honeywort (Whorled caraway)

Sison verticillatum
(Carum verticillatum)

Marine sandwort

Arenaria marina

Fringed orach (Frosted orache)

Atriplex laciniata

Aquatic or Moist Soil - Standing water under wading bird rookeries is critical to limiting predation and enhancing nest success. Draining impoundments while wading birds are actively nesting is strongly discouraged, regardless of other management needs. Appendix 1 gives a waterfowl food value guide for common moist-soil plants in the Southeast of USA.

Marsh marigold

Caltha palustris

Common mare's-tail (Marestail)

Hippuris vulgaris

Common butterwort

Pinguicula vulgaris

European water-horehound (Gipsywort)

Lycopus Europeus

Dioecious valerian (Marsh valerian)

Valeriana dioica

Marsh violet

Hottonia palustris
(Viola palustris)

Valerandi's brookweed (Brookweed)

Samolus valerandi

Marsh thysselinum (Milk parsley)

Thysselium palustre (Peucedanum palustre)

Square-stalked willow herb
(Square-stemmed willow-herb)

Epilobium tetragonum

Willow-like lythrum (Purple Loosestrife)

Lythrum salicaria

Tongue-leaved crowfoot (Greater Spearwort)

Ranunculus lingua

Spearwort

Ranunculus flammeus

Very Dry Soil - Drought-resistant plants. Overcoming dry soils in Australia with list of drought-tolerant plants.

Red sandwort indicates poor sand

Arenaria rubra

Garden sorrel (Common sorrel)

Rumex acetosa

Wild thyme

Thymus serpyllum

Basil-leaved or common acynos, a thyme-like plant (Basil thyme)

Acynos vulgaris (Acynos is Basil-thyme and Acynos vulgaris is Common basil-thyme.

Field trefoil (Haresfoot clover)

Trifolium arvense

SOIL PAGE MENU

Soil Introduction -
Organic Matter in Soil
Physical Changes in Soil
Chemical Changes in Soil
How Soil is created
How Clay is created
How is Humus made
How is Soil Material Lost
What is Soil Texture

WHAT IS SOIL STRUCTURE

How does Water act in Soil
How Chemicals stored in Soil
What are Soil Nutrients
What Soil Organisms
How microbes use nutrients

THE CARBON CYCLE

The Nitrogen Cycle

ACTION PLAN FOR YOU

SOIL SUBSIDENCE
Subsidence due to Clay
Case 1 Clay on Sand

Soil Site Map

Website Structure Explanation and User Guidelines

7 Flower Colours per Month in Colour Wheel below in BULB, CORM, RHIZOME and TUBER GALLERY.

Click on Black or White box in Colour of Month.

LATE SUMMER GALLERY PAGES
Site Map of pages with content (o)
Introduction

FLOWER COLOUR
(o)Bicolour
(o)Blue
(o)Green
(o)Orange
(o)Pink
(o)Purple
(o)Red
(o)Unusual Colours
(o)White
(o)Yellow

FOLIAGE COLOUR
(o)Green 1
(o)Green 2
(o)Green 3
Other Colour

FORM
Mat-forming
Prostrate
Mound-forming
Spreading
(o)Clump-forming
(o)Stemless
(o)Upright

BULB, CORM, RHIZOME AND TUBER INDEX - There are over 700 bulbs in the bulb galleries. The respective flower thumbnail, months of flowering, height and width, foliage thumbnail,
form thumbnail, use and
comments are in the rel-evant index page below:-
(o): A 1, 2, 3
(o): B
(o): C 1, 2
(o): D
(o): E
(o): F
(o): G, Gladiolus
(o): H
(o): I
....: J
....: K
(o): L 1, 2
(o): M
(o): N
(o): O
(o): P
....: Q
....: R
(o): S
(o): T
....: U
(o): V
....: W
(o): XYZ
Type of Form (Mat, Cushion, Spreading, Clump, Stemless, Upright),
Soil Type, Sun Aspect,
Soil Moisture, Foliage Colour, Uses
added, starting in March 2020 with Bulb Allium Anemone Gallery

Besides the above Bulb Flower Colour Comparison Pages, you also have the following Comparison Pages:-
...Bulb Flower Shape -
7 pages of Number of Petals ...... 5 petals,
23 pages of Flower Shape ......... Stars and
7 pages of Natural Arrangements Drumstick

...Bulb Form -
7 pages of Bulb Form ...Clump-forming
...Bulb Use -
33 pages of Bulb Use ...Mass Planting,
Groundcover,
Grow in Patio Pot and
Use in Coastal Conditions
...Bulb Preferred Soil
5 pages of Soil preferred by Bulb ...Chalk ------ in the table on the right

Late Summer INDEX link to Bulb Description Page

Flower Colour with Flower Thumbnail

Flowering Months

Mat,
Cushion,
Spreading,
Clump,
Stemless,
Upright
as its form

Height x Width in inches (cms) -
1 inch = 2.5 cms,
12 inches = 1 foot,
36 inches = 3 feet = 1 yard,
40 inches = 100 cms

Seed Head Thumbnail

Soil

Sun Aspect

Soil Moisture

Foliage Colour
with Foliage Thumbnail

Bulb Use

Comments

PLANTS PAGE
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PLANT USE
Plant Selection
Level 1
Attracts Bird/Butterfly
Photos - Butterfly

Bee Pollinated Plants for Hay Fever Sufferers
Photos - Bloom per Month

Groundcover Height
0-24 inches
(0-60 cms)
24-72 inches
(60-180 cms)
Above 72 inches
(180 cms)
 

Poisonous Cultivated and UK Wildflower Plants with Photos
or
Cultivated Poisonous Plants
or
Wildflower Poisonous Plants


Rabbit-Resistant Plant
Flower Arranging
Wildflower
Photos - Wildflowers

PLANTS FOR SOIL
Plant Selection
Level 2
Info - Any Soil
Plants - Any Soil A-F
Plants - Any Soil G-L
Plants - Any Soil M-R
Plants - Any Soil S-Z

Info - Chalky Soil
Plants - Chalk Soil A-F
Plants - Chalk Soil G-L
Plants - Chalk Soil M-R
Plants - Chalk Soil S-Z

Info - Clay Soil
Plants - Clay Soil A-F
Plants - Clay Soil G-L
Plants - Clay Soil M-R
Plants - Clay Soil S-Z

Info - Lime-Free Soil
Plants - Lime-Free Soil A-F
Plants - Lime-Free Soil G-L
Plants - Lime-Free Soil M-R
Plants - Lime-Free Soil S-Z

Info - Sandy Soil
Plants - Sand Soil A-F
Plants - Sand Soil G-L
Plants - Sand Soil M-R
Plants - Sand Soil S-Z

Info - Peaty Soils
Plants - Peaty Soil A-F
Plants - Peaty Soil G-L
Plants - Peaty Soil M-R
Plants - Peaty Soil S-Z

Following parts of Level 2a,
Level 2b,
Level 2c and
Level 2d are included in separate columns
together with
Acid Soil,
Alkaline Soil,
Any Soil,
Height and Spread,
Flowering Months and
Flower Colour in their Columns,
and also
Companion Plants to aid this plant Page,
Alpine Plant for Rock Garden Index Page
Native to UK WildFlower Plant in its Family Page in this website
and/or
Level 2cc
in the Comment Column
within each
of the Soil Type Pages of
Level 2

PLANTS PAGE MENU

Plant Selection by Plant Requirements
Level 2a
Sun aspect, Moisture

Plant Selection by Form
Level 2b
Tree Growth Shape
Shrub/Perennial Growth Habit

Plant Selection by Garden Use
Level 2c
Bedding
Photos - Bedding
Bog Garden
Coastal Conditions
Containers in Garden
Front of Border
Hanging Basket
Hedge
Photos - Hedging
Pollution Barrier
Rest of Border
Rock Garden
Photos - Rock Garden
Thorny Hedge
Windbreak
Woodland

Plant Selection by Garden Use
Level 2cc Others
Aquatic
Back of Shady Border
Crevice Garden
Desert Garden
Raised Bed
Scree Bed
Specimen Plant
Trees for Lawns
Trees for Small Garden
Wildflower
Photos - Wildflowers

Plant Selection by Plant Type
Level 2d
Alpine
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Herbac Per
Photos - RHS Herbac
Photos - Rock Garden
Annual
Bamboo
Photos - Bamboo
Biennial
Bulb
Photos - Bulb
Climber
Photos - Climber
Conifer
Deciduous Rhizome
Deciduous Shrub
Photos - Decid Shrub
Evergreen Perennial
Photos - Evergr Per
Evergreen Shrub
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Fern
Photos - Fern
Fruit Plant
Grass
Herb
Herbaceous Perennial
Photos - Herbac Per
Remaining Top Fruit
Soft Fruit
Sub-Shrub
Top Fruit
Tuber
Vegetable
Photos - Vegetable

PLANTS PAGE MENU

REFINING SELECTION
Plant Selection by
Flower Colour
Level 3a
Blue Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Bulb
Photos - Climber
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Photos - Wild Flower

Orange Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Wild Flower

Other Colour Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Bulb
Photos - Climber
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Photos - Wild Flower

Red Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Bulb
Photos - Climber
Photos - Decid Shrub
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Photos - Herbac Per
Photos - Rose
Photos - Wild Flower

White Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Bulb
Photos - Climber
Photos - Decid Shrub
Photos - Decid Tree
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Photos - Herbac Per
Photos - Rose
Photos - Wild Flower

Yellow Flowers
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Bulb
Photos - Climber
Photos - Decid Shrub
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Evergr Shrub
Photos - Herbac Per
Photos - Rose
Photos - Wild Flower


Photos - 53 Colours in its Colour Wheel Gallery

Photos - 12 Flower Colours per Month in its Bloom Colour Wheel Gallery

Plant Selection by Flower Shape
Level 3b
Photos - Bedding
Photos - Evergr Per
Photos - Herbac Per

Plant Selection by Foliage Colour
Level 3c
Aromatic Foliage
Finely Cut Leaves
Large Leaves
Other
Non-Green Foliage 1
Non-Green Foliage 2
Sword-shaped Leaves

PRUNING
Plant Selection by Pruning Requirements
Level 4
Pruning Plants

GROUNDCOVER PLANT DETAIL
Plant Selection Level 5
Plant Name - A
Plant Name - B
Plant Name - C
Plant Name - D
Plant Name - E
Plant Name - F
Plant Name - G
Plant Name - H
Plant Name - I
Plant Name - J
Plant Name - K
Plant Name - L
Plant Name - M
Plant Name - N
Plant Name - O
Plant Name - P
Plant Name - Q
Plant Name - R
Plant Name - S
Plant Name - T
Plant Name - U
Plant Name - V
Plant Name - W
Plant Name - XYZ

Then, finally use
COMPANION PLANTING to
aid your plant selected or to
deter Pests
Plant Selection Level 6

Acis
"Their flowers give forth an intensely sweet perfume. Garden Culture - Any rich ordinary soil suits them to perfection, thriving equally well in either the open border or shady shrub beds. The bulbs should be planted 4 inches (10 cms) deep and 3 inches (7.5 cms) apart from August to November and need not be disturbed for several years. Propagate by offsets detached from the parent bulbs in September and October. " from The culture of bulbs, bulbous plants and tubers made plain by Sir J.L. Cotter. Published by Hutchinson & Co.

"They are excellent for cutting and make a good display either in a bed or in a thin woodland. They also do quite well in grass, which must not be mown until their leaves begin to die down.
Garden Culture - They seldom do themselves justice at their first time of flowering after being newly planted. Clumps may be left from 6 to 8 years without disturbance." from Black's Gardening Dictionary. Edited by E.T. Ellis, F.R.H.S. Second edition. Published by A. & C. Black Ltd. in 1928.

"Indoor Culture in Window-boxes - Plant in clumps during October, 3 inches (7.5 cms) deep, 2 inches (5 cms) apart. These are excellent for a site in partial shade, but will only succeed if left undisturbed for 2 or 3 years. Suitable varieties are Leucojum aestivum 'Gravetye Giant' and Leucojum vernum." from Indoor Bulb Growing by Edward Pearson. Published by Latimer House Limited in 1953.

Acis autumnalis
- autumn
(Autumn Snowflake, Syn. Leucojum autumnale)

White

August, September,
October
6 petal, bell-shaped flowers in spike. Fragrant

4-6 x 4
(10-15 x 10)
Sand, Chalk. Requires excellent drainage.
Full Sun, Part Shade
Moist

Dark Green grass-like foliage, often being produced shortly after the flower spike.

Plant at edge of bed. Use in rock garden. Cut flower. Thin woodland or shade from shrubs. Naturalize in grass.

In autumn it throws up leafless stems from which it bears 2-4 bell shaped white flowers, often with red bases to them.

Acis autumnalis pulchellum -
autumn
(Leucojum autumnale oporan-themum,
Snowflake)

White

August, September,
October
6 petal, bell-shaped flowers in spike.
Fragrant

8 x 4
(20 x 10)
Requires exce-llent drainage in Sand, Chalk.
Full Sun,
Dry - Water during growing season only

Dark Green grass-like foliage being produced at the same time as the flower spike.

Plant at edge of bed. Use in rock garden. Cut flower. Thin woodland or shade from shrubs. Naturalize in grass.

Plant with 1 or 2 inches (2.5 or 5 cms) of soil over the tops of the bulbs towards the front of a bed in an area where they can be left undisturbed.

Acis
autumnale 'September Snow' - autumn
(Leucojum autumnale 'September Snow')

Pure White flowers on 4-8 inch stems

September,
October

6 petal, bell-shaped flowers in spike.
Fragrant

4 x 2
(10 x 5)
Requires exce-llent drainage in Sand, Chalk.
Full Sun, Part Shade
Dry

Dark Green grass-like foliage being produced at the same time as the flower spike.

Plant at edge of bed. Use in rock garden. Cut flower. Thin woodland or shade from shrubs. Naturalize in grass.

Plant with 1 or 2 inches (2.5 or 5 cms) of soil over the tops of the bulbs towards the front of a bed in an area where they can be left undisturbed.

Acis valentinum
- autumn
(Acis ionica,
Leucojum valentinum)

White

February, March,
April, May
6 petal, bell-shaped flowers in spike.
Fragrant

10 x 12
(25 x 30)
Requires exce-llent drainage in Sand, Chalk.
Full Sun, Part Shade.
Moist

Thin Grey-Green leaves being produced after the flower spike.

Plant at edge of bed. Use in rock garden. Cut flow-er. Thin woodland or shade from shrubs. Naturalize in grass. Coastal conditions

Grows in open, calcareous, stony and rocky places, hill slopes. Requires winter mulch to protect it from the worst of the weather.

Allium callimischon callimischon - autumn

White with Red stripes

September, October,
November

Umbel

6-12 x 12 (15-30 x 30)

Sand, Chalk
Full Sun
Moist and stop watering when the foliage dies down

Green cylindrical and hollow leaves

These unusual autumn flowering species are ideal on a scree or rockery in full sun. They are hardy and also make nice pot specimens in a cold greenhouse.

Native of the Pelo-ponnese. Plant at soil level and 4 inches (10 cms) apart. All Alliums have the distinctive onion smell, both in the foliage and bulb. This smell can be used to reduce aphid infestations on flowers by planting 1 each side of the infected plant.

Babiana stricta - tender
(Baboon Flower)

Pale Cream through Purple, Mauve and Blue and Crimson

March, April, May

5 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a spike with slight fragrance

6-18 x 4
(15-45 x 9)
Sand, or Grow in pots with John Innes No 3 compost in a cool greenhouse.
Full Sun
Moist

Sword-shaped 5 inches (12.5 cm) long, 0.5 inches (1.125 cms) wide, green

Plant against South-facing House Wall in Southern England where temperatures do not go below -5 degrees Centigrade. Mulch with 3 inches (7.5 cms) of organic compost to conserve moisture in the summer.

Set 6 inches (15 cms) deep in average and sandy soils, a little shallower in heavy clay - put 2 inches (5 cms) of sand surrounding bulb to prevent rotting - soils, 6 inches (15 cms) apart. Leave undisturbed for years.

Remove mulch during autumn and winter.

Biarum bovei
- autumn

Dark Green to Dark Brown Spathe

September, October, November

Up to 6 inches (15 cm) long spathe but not a flower

4-8 x 12
(10-20 x 30)

Scree, Sand or Chalky soil with 1 inch (2.5 cms) of sand worked into the top 2 inches (5 cms).
Full Sun.
Dry

The 5-10 light green leaves are 1 inch wide and 2-4 inches long.

Can be planted beside a path in a rock garden where it is is a rocky, sandy location in full sun in Southern England.

Biarum is a group of unusual looking bulbs, grown for their weird and wonderful spathes that are produced in autumn. Not fully hardy so these are best grown in pots in the garden before spending the winter in a greenhouse.

Biarum ochridense
- autumn

Light Green with
Purple-Brown interior
Spathe

September, October

Up to 6 inches (15 cm) long spathe but not a flower

3-4 x 12
(7.5-10 x 30)
Scree, Sand or Chalky soil with 1 inch (2.5 cms) of sand worked into the top 2 inches (5 cms).
Full Sun.
Dry in summer, but winter moisture is essential.

5-10 light Green leaves emerge in Sep-Oct

Can be planted beside a path in a rock garden where it is is a rocky, sandy location in full sun in Southern England.

Not fully hardy so these are best grown in pots in the garden before spending the winter in a greenhouse.

Biarum tenuifolium
- autumn
(Arum tenuifolium)

Pale Green with Purple Flush Spathe

July, August, September, October, November
Up to 6 inches (15 cm) long spathe but not a flower

10 x 12
(25 x 30)
Scree, Sand or Chalky soil with 1 inch (2.5 cms) of sand worked into the top 2 inches (5 cms).
Full Sun.
Dry in summer, but winter moisture is essential

5-10 light Green leaves emerge in Sep-Oct

Can be planted beside a path in a rock garden where it is is a rocky, sandy location in full sun in Southern England.

Native to the central and eastern Mediterranean.
Not fully hardy so these are best grown in pots in the garden before spending the winter in a greenhouse.

Biarum tenuifolium var. abbreviatum - autumn

Bright Green with
Blackish-Purple
interior Spathe

September

Up to 6 inches (15 cm) long spathe but not a flower

9 x 12
(22.5 x 30)
Scree, Sand or Chalky soil with 1 inch (2.5 cms) of sand worked into the top 2 inches (5 cms).
Full Sun.
Dry in summer, but winter moisture is essential

5-10 light Green leaves emerge in Sep-Oct

Can be planted beside a path in a rock garden where it is is a rocky, sandy location in full sun in Southern England.

Native to Northern Greece and Italy.

Not fully hardy so these are best grown in pots in the garden before spending the winter in a greenhouse.

"The Erythroniums native to the Western U.S. are considered by many to be the most beautiful of the genus.  Often called "Fawn Lilies" because of the dappled coloring to the leaves, they have dainty nodding flowers like small lilies, set off by large shining leaves that are either plain green or marbled with silver and bronze.  Most grow in shaded woodland areas that go quite dry in summer, but with excellent drainage, they can tolerate some summer water." from Telos Rare Bulbs in USA.

"Culture in Garden - They like a damp, well-drained soil, and a partially drained position. The bulbs must not be kept out of the ground any longer than necessary, as they resent being moved, nor must the best results be expected at their first time of flowering. It follows that they should be left alone as long as they flower well. An anual top-dressing of a mixture of light decayed manure and peat benefits them. They are increased by offsets and by seed, which last should be thinly sown in pans in a cold frame in August, and the seedlings grown on for 2 years before planted out in the the open; or if room can be found, in loose soil in a cold frame where they remain until the bloom, when the best can be marked before they are put in their permanent places." from Black's Gardening Dictionary. Edited by E.T. Ellis, F.R.H.S. Second edition. Published by A. & C. Black Ltd. in 1928.

"The largest flower spikes are found where the ground has recently been burnt, so it is possible that a top dressing of potash would have the same effect. If they are to be divided and moved in the same garden this is probably best done when they are beginning to die down after flowering." from Collins Guide to Bulbs by Patrick M. Synge. Reprinted 173. ISBN 0 00 214016-0

"Suitable for cultivation in the garden, greenhouse or house. They succeed in any good well-drained garden soil, but the ideal compost is equal parts loam, peat, leaf mould and sand. The bulbs should be planted in August in a shady position in beds, rock gardens, edges or under trees. Once planted, they need not be disturbed for many years.
For indoor culture the bulbs should be planted 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep and 0.5 inches (1.25 cms) apart in pots in August in the same compost as that recommended for outoor cultivation. The pots should be placed in a cold frame, watered very little until February, and then placed in a sunny window to flower in March. Propagation is best effected by means of offsets in August." from The culture of bulbs, bulbous plants and tubers made plain by Sir J.L. Cotter. Published by Hutchinson & Co.

"Rock Garden Culture for Erythronium citrinum (Yellow flowers); Erythronium Frans Hals (Purple-rose flowers); Erythronium revolutum (Pink flowers); Erythronium Hartwegii (Creamy-white flowers) - Plant in September 1.5 inches (3.75 cms) deep and 4 inches (10 cms) apart, in partial shade, in moist, well-drained sandy loam and ample leaf-mould or peat. Surround the tubers with about an inch (2.5 cms) of silver sand, and do not lift more often than necessary, but mulch annually with well-rotted manure and leaf-mould. Propagate by means of seed in a frame in August. Thin out but do not plant the seedlings out until the third September after sowing. The plants are also increased by offsets." from Rock Gardens how to plan and plant them with sections on the Wall, Paved, Marsh and Water Gardens by A. Edwards in charge of the rock garden, kew. Published by Ward, Lock & Co. in 1929.

Erythronium
dens-canis
(European Dog's-Tooth Violet)

White,
Pink or Lilac

Each flower stem will have 1-10 downward pointing flowers, with reflexed petals.

April, May, June
April, May, June

Clump.
6 petal,
Star-shaped flowers in a spike

6 x 5
(15 x 12)

Humus-rich Sand.
Part Shade, Full Shade.
Moist

Bulbs must be kept slightly damp during storage and before planting.

The broad, often mottled, mid-Green marbled purplish-
Brown leaves appear first and then the wiry flower stems will come through from the middle.

Erythroniums fit in naturally with Trilliums, Galanthus, Hepatica, Helleborus, Hosta, Pulmonaria, Cyclamen coum and Cyclamen hederifolium.

Grow under deciduous trees/shrubs, in a rock garden, or naturalize in thin grass.

Ideally they like a soil which will dry out in Summer although many will do very well in a normal shady bed or border.

Must receive adequate moisture during early spring when the foliage is making growth. Appreciates additional dressings of fallen leaves when the plant is in woodland gardens.

Erythroniums do best when planted under trees and shrubs - to provide partial shade during the hottest part of the day, in as near to a woodland setting as possible. Plant bulbs 5 inches (12.5 cms) deep in good, rich soil; in the autumn in soil that does not dry out.

If you want to plant them in pots use a John Innes compost rather than a peat based compost. They will be fine in this and should only be repotted when it is absolutely necessary.

Erythronium
'Pagoda'
(Trout Lily)

Sulphur-Yellow with brown central rings

April, May, June

Forms a large Clump.
6 petal,
helmet-shaped flowers in a spike

12 x 4
(30 x 9)

Chalk,
Part Shade, Full Shade
Moist

Bronze-mottled, glossy, deep green

Plant in pots, woodland or under shrubs in bed. Use as indoor plant in Green-house or sunny window of cool room inside house. Inside Alpine House, or outside in Alpine Trough, or Window-box.

Bulbs must be kept slightly damp during storage and before planting. A good variety to start off with. Received an 'Award of Merit' in 1959. Ideal compost is equal parts loam, peat, leaf mould and sand for pots.

Erythronium
tuolumnense
(Trout Lily)

Bright Yellow

April, May, June

Forms a large clump.
6 petal,
star-shaped flowers in a spike

12 x 4
(30 x 10)

Chalk,
Part Shade, Full Shade
Moist

Wavy-margined, pale to mid-green.

Plant in pots, woodland or under shrubs in bed. Use as indoor plant in Green-house or sunny window of cool room inside house.

Plant inside Alpine House, or outside in Alpine Trough, or Window-box.

Ferraria crispa
- tender

Dark Brown, Maroon and Black

October, November, December

6 petal, star-shaped flowers

16-20 x 16 ( 40-50 x 40)

Well-drained Sand, Scree
Full Sun,
Dry

Suitable for coastal conditions in stony or sandy soil.

Light green leaves overlap each other being up to 12 inches long, with the uppermost surrounding the flowers.

The corms should be planted 3-4 inches (7.5-10 cms) deep and 6-8 inches (15-20 cms) apart in pots in a frost-free greenhouse during the winter and then the pots can be sunk into a south-facing rock garden during the summer in bold clumps.

It grows in dunes and sandy places in South Africa. Flowers may last only one day, but the plant will continue to produce flowers for several weeks from October to early December.

Freesia
Delicate funnel-shaped flowers in spring and summer, surrounded by a fan of light green sword-like leaves, but the main attraction with these bulbs is the sweet fragrance that fills the room. Plant 5cm (2 inches) deep in a loam-based compost mixed with one-third sharp sand in a pot. Keep at 5C and water sparingly until growth begins. Once 7-8 leaves have appeared feed with a foliar feed every two weeks to encourage spectacular flowering." from R.V. Roger. Bring indoors when nightime temperature drops below 9 degrees Centigrade.
Plant against South-facing House Wall in Southern England during September where temperatures do not go below 0 degrees Centigrade during the winter. Set 2 inches (5 cms) deep in average and sandy soils, 3 inches (7.5 cms) apart. Mulch with 3 inches (7.5 cms) of organic compost to conserve moisture in the autumn, remove mulch during the summer. Leave undisturbed for years; move during their dormant period during the summer.
In colder areas, lift corms after foliage dies, store overwinter, and replant in the spring.
Excellent house plants and cut flowers. Good in rock garden and in edge of beds, however, may not be worth time and effort needed if cannot be left in ground.

"For outdoor culture, any light rich sandy soil will suffice, and the bulbs should be planted 2 inch (5 cms) deep and 2 inches apart in August and September. Do not move plants while growing as plants resent being disturbed.
Indoor culture, The bulbs should be planted as soon as possible in August and from then on in fortnightly batches until the end of September. This ensures a good succession from Christmas onwards for some weeks. 5 inch (12.5 cms) pots are the most suitable, and from 6 to 8 bulbs may be planted in a pot (use a deep pot to allow roots to expand) in a compost consisting of 2 parts sandy loam, 1 part leaf mould, 1 part decayed manure, and a liberal admixture of silver sand. In the case of very small or young bulbs as many as a dozen may be planted in each pot.
After potting, the bulbs should be plunged in a cold frame in ashes or fibre refuse until growth commences, which will usually be in about a month. Water should be given sparingly at first, but as soon as growth is really active these plants like an abundant supply. As soon the buds begin to form weak liquid manure may be given once a month. As the flowers fade water should be gradually withheld, and the bulbs permitted to ripen off. When the foliage has quite died down the pots should be stood on their sides in full on some temporary shelf erected near the roof of the greenhouse or some similar structure in order to allow the bulbs to receive a thorough roasting. I feel sure that this is one of the most essential points in connection with the culture of Freesias. All the most successful growers I have known, either professional or amateur, have adopted this method. The bulbs may be left in the pots until August, then shaken out and carefully sorted, the largest being planted together to supply the coming season's bloom, the smaller grown on to form bulbs for the coming season.
The propagation of Freesias is effected by potting on the small offset bulbs at potting time, or by sowing seeds either as soon as ripe or in March and April. Many seedlings will flower the same year, but none should be transplanted until the following season." from The culture of bulbs, bulbous plants and tubers made plain by Sir J.L. Cotter. Published by Hutchinson & Co.

"Pot not more than 5 top-sized corms into a 5 inch (12.5 cm) pot from August and onwards, using John Innes compost or 4 parts sand, 3 parts leaf-mould with 0.5 ounces medium bone-meal mixed in the compost. The pots should then be plunged in a sunny spot in the garden, or frame, and remain there until there is the first possibility of frosts. During this time the corms must develop a good length of leaf. Where there is no garden a peat-filled box set up by a sunny window will do as a plunging ground. In such case it is important to see that the peat is kept sufficiently moist and that the excessive heat through the window does not scorch the potting compost. The window should be kept open in hot weather and at all convenient times.
Water very lightly at all times, but particularly up to the time of flowering. Failure to flower is too often caused by excess water.
Fertilisers - The addition of 0.5 ounce bone-meal to the potting mixture is sufficient until the flower buds are formed. If John Innes compost is used, no fertilisers need be used. Otherwise when the flower buds appear a teaspoonful of a complete fertiliser should be watered into each pot.
Temperature - Many failures are also caused by over-heating. Temperature conditions will give the best results, and heat at no time should be more than 60F (15C), while 50F (10C) is the best.
Position - South window or where the plants will get the maximum amount of light. Care should be taken that the flowering plants are not scorched by sun heat when close to the glass.
Flowering - Mid-January-March, dependent upon the varieties and potting time. It is important to provide support for the plants as soon as the leaves appear. After flowering, and when the leaves have died down, the corms should be allowed to rest until July, when they can be lifted and repotted in August for indoor flowering again. During the resting period no watering need be carried out.
The best general effect is obtained by planting a mixture of varieties, choosing those which will flower at the same time." from Indoor Bulb Growing by Edward Pearson. Published by Latimer House Limited in 1953.

The following details come from Cactus Art:-

"A flower is the the complex sexual reproductive structure of Angiosperms, typically consisting of an axis bearing perianth parts, androecium (male) and gynoecium (female).    

Bisexual flower show four distinctive parts arranged in rings inside each other which are technically modified leaves: Sepal, petal, stamen & pistil. This flower is referred to as complete (with all four parts) and perfect (with "male" stamens and "female" pistil). The ovary ripens into a fruit and the ovules inside develop into seeds.

Incomplete flowers are lacking one or more of the four main parts. Imperfect (unisexual) flowers contain a pistil or stamens, but not both. The colourful parts of a flower and its scent attract pollinators and guide them to the nectary, usually at the base of the flower tube.

Androecium (male Parts or stamens)
It is made up of the filament and anther, it is the pollen producing part of the plant.
Anther This is the part of the stamen that produces and contains pollen. 
Filament This is the fine hair-like stalk that the anther sits on top of.
Pollen This is the dust-like male reproductive cell of flowering plants.

Gynoecium (female Parts or carpels or pistil)
 It is made up of the stigma, style, and ovary. Each pistil is constructed of one to many rolled leaflike structures. Stigma This is the part of the pistil  which receives the pollen grains and on which they germinate. 
Style This is the long stalk that the stigma sits on top of. 
Ovary The part of the plant that contains the ovules. 
Ovule The part of the ovary that becomes the seeds. 

Petal 
The colorful, often bright part of the flower (corolla). 
Sepal 
The parts that look like little green leaves that cover the outside of a flower bud (calix). 
(Undifferentiated "Perianth segment" that are not clearly differentiated into sepals and petals, take the names of tepals.)"

The following details come from Nectary Genomics:-

"NECTAR. Many flowering plants attract potential pollinators by offering a reward of floral nectar. The primary solutes found in most nectars are varying ratios of sucrose, glucose and fructose, which can range from as little a 8% (w/w) in some species to as high as 80% in others. This abundance of simple sugars has resulted in the general perception that nectar consists of little more than sugar-water; however, numerous studies indicate that it is actually a complex mixture of components. Additional compounds found in a variety of nectars include other sugars, all 20 standard amino acids, phenolics, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, vitamins, organic acids, oils, free fatty acids, metal ions and proteins.

NECTARIES. An organ known as the floral nectary is responsible for producing the complex mixture of compounds found in nectar. Nectaries can occur in different areas of flowers, and often take on diverse forms in different species, even to the point of being used for taxonomic purposes. Nectaries undergo remarkable morphological and metabolic changes during the course of floral development. For example, it is known that pre-secretory nectaries in a number of species accumulate large amounts of starch, which is followed by a rapid degradation of amyloplast granules just prior to anthesis and nectar secretion. These sugars presumably serve as a source of nectar carbohydrate.

WHY STUDY NECTAR? Nearly one-third of all worldwide crops are dependent on animals to achieve efficient pollination. In addition, U.S. pollinator-dependent crops have been estimated to have an annual value of up to $15 billion. Many crop species are largely self-incompatible (not self-fertile) and almost entirely on animal pollinators to achieve full fecundity; poor pollinator visitation has been reported to reduce yields of certain species by up to 50%."

Freesia alba
- tender
(Freesia lactea)

White
with a
Creamy-Yellow centre.

March,
April,
May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster. Very strongly scented.

8-17 x 4
(21-42 x 9)

Sand, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
Moist when growing, bone dry when dormant.

Light Green sword-like leaves

Bring pot indoors when nightime temperature drops below 9 degrees Centigrade. Excellent house plants and cut flowers.

Native to South Africa. Main attraction with these bulbs is the sweet fragrance that fills the room. If outside, mulch in autumn, remove mulch in summer.

Freesia andersoniae
- tender
(Freesia leichtlinii,
Freesia middlemostii)

Cream to Purple with yellow.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster. Very fragrant.

8 x 4
(21 x 9 )

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Native to southern coastal areas of South Africa.

Plant against South-facing House Wall in Southern England

Freesia corymbosa
- tender

Pale yellow with bright yellow-orange markings.

April, May.
6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster.
One of the most fragrant, especially in evening. Aside from fragra-nce, has little to recommend it.

12 x 24
(30 x 60)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Erect, spiral dark green fan, 10 inches (25 cms) long.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter. Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Native to eastern Cape Province of South Africa.

Plant against South-facing House Wall in Southern England

Freesia elimensis
- tender

Fragrant Ivory White with mauve reverse and yellow markings.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster.
A sweet scent particularly in evening.

6-12 x 6
(15-30 x 15)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter. Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Native to South Africa.

In colder areas, lift corms after foliage dies, store overwinter, and replant in the spring.

Freesia speciosa 'Athene'
- tender

Fragrant Ivory-White
with a Yellow throat.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster.
Very fragrant.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter. Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Introduced in 1957 and recei-ved an 'Award of Merit' in 1962.

Freesia speciosa 'Ballerina'
- tender

Fragrant Ivory-White.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped flowers in a cluster.
Very fragrant.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Bloemfontein'
- tender

Dusky Pink on a
Yellow centre.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped double-flowered flowers in a cluster.
 

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Chiron'
- tender

Dark Red on a pale
Yellow centre.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped single-flowered flowers in a cluster.
 

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Clazina'
- tender

Lemon Yellow.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped single-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Corona'
- tender

Yellow.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped double-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Diana'
- tender

White.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped double-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Epona'
- tender

Red.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped single-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Fantasy'
- tender

Creamy-White.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped double-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Golden Melody'
- tender

Buttercup Yellow.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped single-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Jessica'
- tender

Purple-Red.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped semi-double-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Freesia speciosa 'Magdalena'
- tender

Yellow.

April, May.

6 petal, funnel-shaped single-flowered flowers in a cluster.

10 x 20
(25 x 50)

Sand, Gravel, or potting compost,
Full Sun,
moist

Dark Green foliage held in fan shape

Excellent house plants and cut flowers, also in rock garden next to house wall.

Bring pot indoors during autumn and winter.

Ixia 'Blue Bird' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)
The name is from the Greek ixos which is birdlime, referring to the clammy sap of these plants.

Pale Blue and Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Castor' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Violet Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia flexuosa - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily, Ixia polystachya)

Pinkish Mauve

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike. Slightly scented

24 x 24
(60 x 60)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Giant' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Ivory and Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Hogarth' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Cream and Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Holland's Gloire'
- tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Yellow

July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Mabel' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Pink with Red Blush

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia maculata - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Yellow with Purplish-
Black Blotches

May, June

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in a cluster of up to 17 individual blooms

18 x 12
(45 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

4 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Marquette' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Yellow and Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Rose Emperor'
- tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Pink with
Purple centres

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Titia' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Magenta

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Venus' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Dark Red

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.

Ixia 'Vulcan' - tender
(Wand flower, Corn Lily)

Pink and Purple

June, July

Clump.
6 petal, star-shaped flowers in spike

16 x 12
(39 x 30)
Sand.
Full Sun,
Moist

3-5 erect, narrow, sword-shaped, dark green leaves per corm

Grow in greenhouse, cool conserv-atory, patio pot, raised rock garden by south facing wall, window-box. Ground cover

In very mild areas, plant out in sandy soil with good drainage and 1 inch (2.5 cms) deep coarse bark mulch, in March and then lift in late summer when the foliage has died down. Then, corms should be allowed to become dry.